Quintus Sertorius: born in Nursia 126 BC, died in 72 BC in Osca (Spain)

A Roman general, who obtained great celebrity during the wars in Spain; and who, afterwards, in the quarrels between consuls Cinna and Octavius, took part with the former; but on the return of Sylla, was compelled to retire into Spain, where, for many years, he opposed the whole power of the romams, and where, at last, he was assassinated, in the year 681 of the city, and 73 years before the birth of Christ.

Iberian Peninsula circa 50 BC
Alcides Pinto

Plutarch asserts, respecting this eminent Roman, that Fortune was always more cruel to him than even his most inveterate enemies; yet, that he showed himself equal to Metellus in experience, to Pompey in Courage, and to Sylla in victories; nay, that, even in power, he was a match for the whole Roman people, at a time when he was exiled from his country and a sojourner among barbarians.

He was born at Nursia, a town in the country of the Sabines; and his father, who was a man of considerable respectability, died when Sertorius was a child. His mother, however, whom he tenderly loved, gave him a liberal education. Like most other Roman youths, in the higher ranks of life, he was instructed insuch qualifications as would fit him for either the senate or the camp; but his inclination led him to the latter.

His first campaign was, with the Roman army, under Marius, when acting against the Teutones and Cimbri. During one of the battles, in which the Romans were defeated, Sertorius had his horse killed under him, and received many wounds. Yet, though armed with a breast-plate and a shield, he swam over the Rhine and effected his escape.

In a second encounter, the Romans were so dread fully alarmed by the numbers and the menaces of their enemy, that it was extremely difficult to prevail with any man to keep his post or to obey his general. Marius had, at that time, the command, and Sertorius (as was not then unusual with men of character and honour) offered his services, to visit the enemy's ranks as a spy, for the purpose of obtaining some account of their numbers and situation. Having a sufficient knowledge of the Gaulish language, to enable him to escape detection, he assumed the dress of a Gaul, and mingled with the barbarians. As soon as he had ascertained such particulars relative to the state of the enemy as were requisite, he returned and communicated them to Marius; and, in recompence for his services, he received the established rewards of valour. After this, through the whole war, he gave such proofs of courage and capacity, as raised him to distinction, and gained him the entire confidence of his general.

In a subsequent war, Sertorius was employed, in Spain, as a legionary tribune under Didius. Here, whilst in winter quarters, the soldiers, being in a luxuriant country, and having little to employ their time, became disorderly and undisciplined. This state of the army was soon known to the enemy, who resolved to attack the town of Castulo, in which a considerable number of the Romans were quartered.

They did so, and put many of them to the sword; but neglected to place a guard near the gate at which they entered. Sertorius, perceiving this, collected a party of the men who had fled; and, marching them round the town, entered by the same gate, secured the town, and slew a great number of the assailants. This was not all. He stripped the bodies, and, having clothed his own men in the garments of the slain, he marched, in that disguise, to the city of the Gyriscenians, from which the enemy had come. The inhabitants, deceived by the well~known suits of armour, opened their gates and sallied forth, with the expectation of meeting their friends and fellow-citizens, in all the joy of success. The consequence was, that many of them were cut to pieces at the gates, and the rest surrendered them selves and were sold as slaves.

Sertorius had not yet attained the rank of a general. After this honour had been conferred upon him, his personal bravery was conspicuous on every occasion, where it could be exerted. He lost one of his eyes in battle; and this loss he afterwards made a subject of exultation. Few soldiers (he used to say) are able to carry always with them the badges of their valour; but the indication of my bravery is, at all times, with me; for those who see my misfortune, behold, at the same time, the evidence of my courage.

The Roman population treated him with so much respect, that, whenever he entered the public places, they received him with acclamations and applause; an honour which officers, distinguished for their age and achievements, were not always able to obtain. Yet, when he offered himself a candidate for the office of tribune, he was rejected, through the opposition that was made against him, by the faction of Sylla.

In the year of the city 666, an irreconcilable quarrel took place betwixt the two consuls, Cinna and Octavius; the former of whom was devoted to the popular faction, and the latter to the senate. Sertorius, driven by disappointments and resentment into the democratic party, was induced to join Cinna; and, such was then the fluctuating and unhappy state of the Roman government, that a tremendous conflict took place in the forum, betwixt the adherents of the two parties. In this conflict, Cinna and Sertorius lost nearly ten thousand men. Marius, having been informed that the democratic faction was again in force, hastened from Africa to Italy; and, notwithstanding the losses which had been sustained by Cinna, he offered his services to that general. The prudence and moderation of Sertorius objected to the admission of a man of Marius's character into the camp : his objections, however, were overruled, and Marius was appointed to command the army. Having obtained a considerable reinforcement of troops, he led them towards Rome. Metellus and Octavius, generals of the senatorial party, in vain opposed him: they were abandoned by their men, and Marius entered the city. Here he caused multitudes of those who had not saved themselves by flight, to be put to death, without even the form of a trial, and their property to be confiscated. His chief cruelties were directed against the greatest and most respectable characters of the senate. The city became a dismal scene of robbery, murder, and every species of enormity. Sertorius severely reproached the authors of these horrid crimes, but was unable to prevent them. Marius caused himself to be made consul, and suffered his banditti to continue their rapine and massacres. His tyranny, however, was not of long continuance, for death, soon afterwards, terminated his barbarities.

Sylla returned to Italy, to revenge the injuries that had been suffered by his friends; and Sertorius, disgusted with the management of the public affairs, and commiserating the sufferings of the people, hastened into Spain, hoping that he might beable to secure, to himself, the government of that country, and thus have a place of safety, for the retreat of his friends.

On his arrival at the Spanish mountains, the inhabitants insisted that he should pay a toll for permission to cross them. His attendants were indignant that a Roman officer should be required to pay toll to barbarians. But Sertorius was too wise a man to consider himself disgraced by a compliance with the demand; and he satisfied the samples of his officers, by saying that, time was what he had to pay for, and that it was so valuable to him, that he must not refuse. He consequently paid the demand, and proceeded into Spain, without the loss of a moment. The Spaniards, having suffered much from the oppression and cruelty, the avarice and rapacity of former rulers, were not favourably disposed towards any Roman governor. To overcome their aversion, Sertorius endeavoured to gain the affection of the principal inhabitants, by an obliging and affable conduct; and, to obtain their favour, be lowered considerably their taxes: but he chiefly obtained popularity, by passing the winter in tents, and thus relieving them from the burden and expence of providing quarters for the Roman soldiers. Sertorius did not, however, depend on the attachment only of the Spaniards: he adopted every means of keeping them in awe of the Roman power, which could be suggested to the mind of an experienced commander.

When he was informed that Sylla had obtained possession of Rome, he was convinced that an army would soon be sent to dispossess him of his government. He, therefore, without delay, dispatched an officer, with six thousand men, to fortify and defend the roads through the Pyrenees. The troops of Sylla arrived, under the command of Caius Annius. For a while they were bravely resisted; but the officer of Sertorius having been assassinated, they were suffered to pass. Sertorius, now unable to make any effectual resistance, retired, with about three thousand men, to New Carthage, a port on the south eastern coast of Spain. He thence embarked, with sevaral vessels, for Africa. But, not being permitted to land, he accompanied the vessels of some Cilician pirates, to the island of Pityusa, now called Ivica.

Annius approached the island with a numerous fleet, and with a body of about five thousand troops. Though greatly inferior in force, Sertorius ventured to engage him; but a tremendous storm arose, which drove many of his ships on shore. Sertorius was, himself, prevented, by the storm, from making his way at sea, and by the enemy from landing: he was, consequently, tossed about, upon the waves, for ten days. At length the wind abated, and, his crew being nearly exhausted by hunger, he landed, on a small island, to obtain water and provisions, but without success. No alternative was left but to sail to a part of Spain unoccupied by the enemy. He did so, and obtained the relief that he sought. Here he found some mariners who had recently some from the Fortunate isles; (Canary islands;) and so much was he delighted with the description they gave of the climate, the soil, and productions of these islands, that he suggested to his companions a project of retiring thither, to live in tranquillity, equally removed from the evils of tyranny and of war.

This project he might, perhaps, have put into execution, had not a war broken out in Mauritania, which altogether changed his plans. Sylla was desirous of restoring Ascalis, the son of Iphtha, to the throne of that country, contrary to the wishes of the Inhabitants; and Sertorius resolved to sail thither, for the purpose of assisting the people. His assistance was peculiarly acceptable to them, for he defated the troops of Ascalis in a pitched battle, and afterwards besieged him in the place of his retreat. Sylla sent a considerable force to the relief of his ally; but this, Sertorius also defeated; and, after; other important successes, he put the inhabitants in possession of their cities, and replaced the government in their hands.

The character of Sertorius, as an able and experienced officer, was now so well established, that he received an invitation from the Lusitanians, or, Western Spaniards, to take the command of their troops against the forces of Sylla. He accepted the invitation, and, having sailed thither, was invested with almost supreme power. His first procedure was to strengthen the army, and to reduce to submission the neighbouring provinces of Spain. To great reputation for clemency of conduct and vigour; in all his proceedings, Sertorius added no inconsiderable degree of artifice. He imposed upon the minds of this ignorant people, and rendered them subsetvient to his wishes, by persuading them that he had supernatural means of information, by a tame deer, which he kept in his camp.

With two thousand six hundred men, whom he had brought from Africa, and four thousand seven hundred Lusitanians, he carried on a war against four Roman generals, and more than one hundred, and twenty thousand troops; and was successful in many engagements, both by sea and by land. Even Metellus Pius, the son of Metellus Numidicus, a general of great eminence and reputation, was so harassed by this inferior force, that he knew not how to act. He had had no experience in the climbing of mountains, nor any capacity to vie, in, flight and pursuit, with men who were as swift as the wind; nor could his troops bear hunger, eat; their food raw, nor lie upon the ground without tents, like those of Sertorius. Metellus also was advanced in years; and Sertorius was in the vigour of his age, accustomed to bear fatigue, to make long and harassing marches, to pass many successive nights without sleep, and to subsist on the meanest and most unpalatable of diet. During his leisure, Sertorius had occupied much of his time in hunting and traversing the mountains, in search of game. By this means he had acquired an accurate knowledge of many passes amongst the rocks, which were wholly unknown to the troops of Metellus. This enabled him, whenever he was in difficulty, to escape, in safety, from the pursuit of his enemies, and to take possession of places which were almost unassailable.

Metellus not being able to come to any regular action, suffered all the inconveniences of a defeat; and Sertorius gained as many advantages by retreating, as he could have done by pursuing. If the Romans began to march, Sertorius hastened after them, to impede their progress: if they continued in their camps, he galled them in such manner, that they were obliged to quit their post: if they invested a town, he soon made his appearance; and, by cutting off their supplies, he besieged, as it were, the besiegers.

It appeared to Metellus that he might be able to distress Sertorius, if he could reduce to submission the city of Langobriga, the inhabitants of which had been of great service to his opponent. This he believed he should be able to effect by cutting off their supply of water. He therefore advanced to the Walls, and, having made himself master of the Springs, concluded that they would be obliged to capitulate within two days. Sertorius, to relieve the distress of his allies, procured two thousand skins, filled them with Water, and promised a considerable reward to a party of Spaniards and and Moors, if they should succeed in conveying them into the town. These men proceeded along the mountains, executed their commission, and brought safely away from the town, a great number of persons who would have been useless in its defence. Metellus, when informed of this manoeuvre, was excessively distressed; and, his provisions be ginning to fail, he was obliged to detach one of his generals, with six thousand men, to collect fresh supplies. These Sertorius attacked and totally routed; and Metellus, amidst the scoffs and ridicule of the Spaniards, was compelled to retire.

Being now without any immediate opponent, Sertorius obtained great popularity, among the Spaniards, by arming them like the Romans, teaching them to keep their ranks and obey the word of command; so that, instead of exerting their strength in a rude and disorderly manner, as the had hitherto done, they were now enabled, regularly and systematically, to defend themselves against their enemies. But his greatest effort of policy was to collect, into one city, the children of the nobility, from all the adjacent districts. By means of able and accomplished masters, be caused these to be instructed in Greek and Roman literature. This procedure had the appearance only of anxiety for their education, that the children might be prepared for becoming citizens of Rome, and be qualified for important commissions. But, being wholly in his power, they were, in fact, thus rendered so many hostages, for the good conduct of their parents. The latter, in the mean while, were delighted to see their sons, clad in gowns bordered with purple, walking in state to the schools: and this without any expence to them, for Sertorius took upon himself the whole charge of the establishment. He even super intended the proceedings in the schools, made enquiry into the improvement of the children, and distributed rewards to those who were most deserving.

It was customary, in Spain, when a general died in battle, for all those who fought near his person, to die with him; and this manner of devoting themselves to death, was called a libation. Sertorius was always attended by a great number of Spaniards, who had laid themselves under this obligation. On one occasion, when he was defeated near one of his towns, the enemy pressed so closely upon him, that his men, in order to save him, exposed themselves to the utmost danger. They raised him from the ground, and forwarded him upon their shoulders, till he was safely lodged within the walls; and, as soon as they had ascertained that he was safe, they dispersed, for the purpose of effecting their own escape.

By repeated successes, and by the addition of many Roman troops, which had joined him, at different times, Sertorius was at length at the head of a powerful force. But most of his men were so impetuous, and so impatient of controul, that he had the utmost difficulty in commanding them. Having, to no purpose, endeavoured to do this, by mild and persuasive means, he resolved to let them learn, by experience, the consequences that are attendant on irregularity of conduct. They had so incessantly importuned him, to engage with the Roman army, that he, at last, suffered them to do so; and they were so severely beaten, that, had he not, by a body of reserve, rescued them from destruction, few would have returned to the camp, to relate the particulars of their disaster.

The consequence of this defeat was excessive de spondency; and, to arouse them from this, Sertorius adopted a very singular expedient. A few days after the engagement, be assembled his troops, in the field, and produced before them two horses, the one old and feeble, and the other young and powerful. By the weak horse stood a robust and able bodied man; and, by the strong horse, a man of diminutive stature and contemptible appearance. On a signal given, the strong man began to pull, with all his might, at the tail of the weak horse; and the little man to pluck off, one by one, the hairs from the of the great horse. The former tugged, for a long time, and with all his strength, but to no purpose; but the latter, without difficulty, soon stripped all the hair from the tail. Sertorius then said : You see, my fellow-soldiers, how much superior are the effects of perseverance to of force; and that, in a state of union, there are many invincible, which, when separated, may gradually be overcome. In short, perseverance is irresistible. By perseverance, Time attacks and destroys the strongest things. Time is the best ally of those who have the discernment to use properly the Opportunities which he presents, and he is the worst enemy to those, who rush into action without his aid

An extraordinary contrivance which Sertorius adopted to subdue the Charcitani, excited, among the Spaniards, as much admiration as his military exploits. The Charcitani resided, not in cities nor villages, but in dens and caverns, formed into the side of a lofty hill. The soil of the whole surrounding country was so light and crumbling, that it yielded to the least pressure of the foot, and, when topched, rose into the air, like ashes or unslaked lime. The inhabitants of these caverns, whenever were apprehensive of danger, retired into them, as considered themselves safe from attack. After one of his with the troops of Metellus, Sertorius encamped his men beneath this hill. The savage inhabitants of the caverns, imagining that he had retired thither after a defeat, offered him, many insults. Provoked at their conduct, he mounted his horse, to reconnoitre the place; but, as he could see no part in which it was accessible, he almost despaired of being able to take it, and, could only vent his anger in vain menaces. At last he observed that the wind blew the dust, in great quantities, towards the mouth of the caverns; and, on enquiring among the inhabitants of the neighbourhood, he was informed that the wind, at a certain time of the day, usually blew in the same direction. He further learned that, at this season of the year, in consequence of the melting of the ice from the mountains, it sometimes blew with great violence. On this information, Sertorius ordered his soldiers immediately to collect vast quantities of the dry and crum bling earth, so as to raise a considerable mount, opposite to the hill. The Charcitani, imagining that he intended to storm their caverns from the mount, laughed at his proceedings. The soldiers, however, continued their work till night. At sunrise, the next morning, a breeze sprung up, which removed the lightest part of the heap, and dispersed it like smoke; and, as the sun rose higher, the breeze became so violent as to cover the whole side of the hill with dust. To operate with greater effect, the soldiers stirred up the heap, and surge of them galloped their horses up and down it. Tremendous clouds of dust were carried into the caves; and these, having no opening except the entrance, it was with difficulty that the inhabitants could either see or breathe. Their provisions were covered, and every vessel and utensil became filled. In wretchedness which is scarcely capable of description, they held out for two days; and, on the third day, they submitted themselves to the mercy of their enemy. By this stratagem Sertorius did not gain much strength, but his renown was increased, from the circumstance of his having subdued, by policy, those whom he would, in vain, have attempted to Overcome by force.

After the death of Sylla, and in consequence of the old age and inactivity of Metellus, Pompey was appointed to the command in Spain. No sooner had he passed the Pyrenees, than Sertorius advanced to meet him, and every art of generalship was, on both sides, employed, in contending for superiority; yet, both in attack and in defence, Sertorius appears, in almost every instance, to have had the advantage.

His skill was remarkably exhibited, in the siege of Lauron, a strongly-fortified city near the eastern coast of Spain. It was garrisoned by Roman troops, and, Sertorius having besieged it, Pompey marched, with his whole army, to its relief. Near the walls was a hill from which the city could be greatly annoyed; and Pompey had endeavoured, but in vain, to prevent Sertorius from obtaining possession of it. Defeated in this project, he posted his army betwixt the hill and the town, and, congratulating himself on his success, he sent a message to the Lauronites, stating that they might be perfectly at ease; and might quietly sit upon their walls, whilst they saw him besiege Sertorius upon the hill. When that general was informed of the message of Pompey, he laughed, and said: I will teach this scholar of Sylla, (for so in ridicule he was accustomed to call him,) that a general ought to look behind him, rather than before him." At the same time be exhibited, to the inhabitants of the city, a body of six thousand men, in the camp which he had quitted. These he had left for the expres purpose of attacking Pompey in the rear, when he should approach the hill. Pompey did not discover the manoeuvre of Sertorius, till it was too late; and, when he had discovered it, he did not dare to begin the attack, lest he should be surrounded. The consequence was, that he was obliged to act only on the defensive, and see the city lost; for the people, despairing of assistance, surrendered it to Sertorius.

During the course of the war, Sertorius received some checks; but all these were in skirmishes with de tachments of his army; for, wherever he acted in person, he was invincible. And so great was his skill in rectifying the errors both of himself and his officers, that he obtained more applause from this only, than his adversaries obtained in their most brilliant success.

In the battle of Sucro¹ the skill of Sertorius was signally conspicuous. He had been expecting an attack from the united forces of Pompey and Metellus; but Pompey, desirous of appropriating to himself the whole merit of the victory, resolved to commence the attack, near the banks of the Sucro, before Metellus could join him. This was precisely What Sertorius wished. He was, however, in some degree, deceived; for he found that the wing of the army which was opposed to him was not commanded by Pompey, but by Afranius, one of his lieutenants, and that Pompey commanded the other wing. The attention of Sertorius was, therefore, divided. He hastened to oppose Pompey, and he so completely defeated him, that it was with difficulty he could effect his escape. Afranius, however, in the absence of Sertorius, overthrew all before him. Sertorius returned, rallied his men, opposed Afranius in person, recovered all his losses, and was preparing to enter into a final encounter, when the approach of Metellus was observed. He was then obliged to draw off his troops, but he did it with an air of gaiety, saying: If the old woman had not been here, I would have flogged the boy well the boy well

In a subsequent tremendous conflict on the plains of Saguntum, Metellus was severely wounded; but Sertorius was defeated, and obliged to retreat. This, however, was only a partial reverse, for he, Soon afterwards, recovered his strength, and compelled the Roman armies to separate. Pompey became so extremely distressed from want of money to carry on the war, that he informed the senate, he should soon leave the country, and return to Italy, if they did not supply him; and many persons were of opinion that Sertorius would be in Italy before him. So great was the dread which Metellus had of Sertorius, that he issued a proclamation, offering a reward of an hundred talents of silver, and twenty thousand acres of land, to any Roman who should take him.

In his greatest misfortunes, Sertorius never departed from his dignity, nor did he ever lose his confidence in his own talents and resources. On the other hand, in the midst of his victories, to show that he was not, in heart, an enemy to his country, he offered, both to Metellus and Pompey, to lay down his arms, on condition that he might be permitted to return in the capacity of a private man. He asserted that he would rather he the meanest citizen in Rome, than command all the other nations of the earth, and be an exile from his native land.

His anxiety to return to his country is said to have been occasioned chiefly by extreme attachment to his mother. The whole care of his education had devolved upon her. She still retained his most ardent affections; and these now received a severe shock. He received information of her death; and, after the melancholy tidings were communicated to him, he gave himself up to the most alarming grief. For seven days he would not be seen by even his most intimate friends. At last the generals beset his tent, and insisted that he should rise from the ground, for the purpose of showing himself to the soldiers, and again conducting the affairs of his army. From this, and from other similar traits of character, many persons were inclined to consider Sertorius a man of naturally pacific disposition; and that, if he had not been goaded by his enemies, into opposition, he would have become one of the most faithful and most meritorious of the Roman citizens.

Mithridates, king of Pontus, in Asia Minor, sent ambassadors to him, in Spain, offering an alliance, and a supply of money and ships of war, on condition that Sertorius, in return, would aid in establishing his claim to certain parts of Asia, which, after a recent defeat, by the troops of Sylla, he had given up to the Romans.

Several Roman patricians, driven from their country by the tyrannical conduct of Sylla, had found refuge in the army of Sertorius. These he called the senate, and by their advice he acted, in most of his proceedings. On the present pension, they were unanimous in opinion that he should accept the conditions offered by Mithridates, He, however, refused to do so, in consequence of Mithridates having claimed the government of a province, which had belonged to the Romans. In whatever circumstances he was placed, Sertorius declared that he would not compromise either the Roman character or the Roman interest. The ambassadors were sent back: Mithridates gave up his claim, and a treaty was finally signed, by which the latter agreed to send to Spain, and forty ships of war; and Sertorius, in return, was to supply Mithridates, with the aid of a general officer, and a considerable body of troops.

Sertorius had so long been in the habit of submitting his opinions, on all matters of general policy, to those Roman patricians who had sought his protection, that they, at length, began to consider their power equal to his; and to desire that he should be subject to their control. As they were unable to effect their purposes, in this respect, they industriously circulated rumours injurious to his fame and character; and sought, by every possible means, to ruin him in the opinion of the army. They also treated the Spaniards, his allies, with great injustice, inflicted heavy punishments upon them, and collected from them exorbitant subsidies, as if by his order. Hence, many of the Spanish cities began to waverin their allegiance, and to excite disturbances. The persons sent to compose these disturbances, purposely made more enemies than they reconciled, and thus inflamed the rising spirit of disobedience. Sertorius, ignorant of the real cause of their enmity, departed from his former system of clemency; and, according to Plutarch, behaved with excessive cruelty towards the children of the Spaniards in Oscar, some of whom he ordered to be put to death, and others to be sold for slaves.

At the head of the conspirators, was a Roman senator named Perpenna. He and his partisans prepared letters to Sertorius, stating that an important victory had been gained by one of his officers, and that great numbers of the enemy had been slain. Pretending to rejoice at this success, they made a grand supper, and, after much entreaty, they prevailed with Sertorius to be their guest. The entertainments at which he had, hitherto, been present, had all been conducted with the strictest decorum; for he would not suffer, in his presence, the least indecency, either of action, or of conversation. But, on the present occasion, in the midst of the entertainment, the company pretended to quarrel, they entered into the most dissolute discourse, and pretended that drunkenness was the cause of their ribaldry. All this was done in a hope of irritating him to quarrel with them. But, either provoked with their disgusting conduct, or guessing at their designs, he changed his posture, and threw himself back upon his couch, as though be neither heard nor regarded them. Perpenna then took a cup of wine, and, as he was drinking, he purposely let it fall from his hands. This was a signal for attack. One of the men, who sate nearest to Sertorius, struck him with his sword. Sertorius instantly turned, and strove to rise; but the same man threw himself uponhis breast, and held down both his hands. Being thus unable to defend himself the rest of the conspirators dispatched him, with many wounds.

The Spaniards, when informed of the death of Sertorius, for the most part, abandoned Perpenna, and surrendered themselves to Pompey and Metellus. Perpenna afterwards headed the troops of Sertorius, and ventured to give Pompey battle; but, being defeated and taken prisoner, himself, and nearly all his accomplices, were subsequently put to death.

1. Sucro was a river of Valentis, the same which is now called the Xucar.

Authorities-Appian and Plutarch.