Marcus Claudius Marcellus : born about 268 B.C. in Rome, died in 208 B.C. in Rome

A Roman general of plebeian descent, who, as consul, was successfully employed in a war against the Gauls, took Syracuse ater a siege of three years, was the colleague of Fabius Maximus in the second Carthagian war, defeated Annibal at Nola; but was slain by a stratagem of that general in Apulia in the year of Rome 545, and 209 years before the birth of Christ.

All that is known respecting the origin or the early years of Marcellus; is, that he was descended from a plebeian, but respectable family in Rome, was early trained to arms. He had a strong and muscular frame, and a powerful arm; a quick comprehension, and great talent, both natural and acquired; and received his surname in consequence of his martial character.

Marcus Claudius Marcellus

One of the first actions recorded of him is, that, whilst with the Roman army in Sicily, seeing his brother in danger, he protected him, and slew the persons by whom he was attacked. For numerous acts of bravery, during his youth, he received crowns and other military honours. At an early period of life he was chosen curule aedile, and was elected into the college of augura; and it is an addition to his glory, that his virtues were uncorrupted by pride; and that they increased with his honours and his years.

In the year of the city; 531 (223 B.C.), the Romans were involved in a contest with the Cisalpine Gauls, and Marcellus was appointed consul. Vast preparations were made, to oppose the Gaulish army; which, advancing in formidable array, had passed the Alps and had approached the banks of the Po. Marcellus headed the command of the Roman troops, and no sooner had be correctly ascertained the direction in which the enemy were advancing, than he hastened to meet them. The two armies encountered near the little town of Clastidium, in Liguria.

The Romans had no time to obtain either rest or refreshment, for the enemy, having perceived their approach, rushed furiously upon them. Viridomarus, the king of the Gauls, a man of immense stature, clad in armour, richly adorned with gold and silver, and ornamented with the most brilliant colours, seeing Marcellus, and judging; from his ensigns of authority, that he was the Roman consul, advanced considerably before his men, brandished his spear, and loudly challenged his opponent to single combat. A little while before this, Marcellus had vowed to Jupiter that, if he were successful, he would consecrate to him the choicest of the enemy's armour; and, when he saw the Gaulish chief, thus decorated, he imagined the gods had indicated that his vow would be accomplished. He therefore accepted the challenge; and, in an irresistible attack, pierced, with his spear, the breast of his opponent, threw him upon the ground and slew him. Marcellus leaped from his horse, took off the armour from the king, and, in performance of his vow, consecrated it to Jupiter. The Roman soldiers also imagining that had obtained a supernatural indication of success; immediately rushed upon their foes, and obtained a decisive victory over them.

Marcellus was the third Roman chieftain who had Slain a king in battle, and had thus obtained what were called the opime spoils; that is, the armour of the commander who had been slain. These spoils were allowed to he carried, in the triumphal procession before the victor. The other successful Roman chiefs was Romulus, who slew Acrion king of the Coeninenses, and Cornelius Cossus, who slew Tolumnius, king of the Vegentes.

No sooner was this important victory made known in Rome, than the senate decreed that Marcellus should be honoured with a triumph. On his entering the city, the rich display of arms and baggage that had been taken, the prodigious stature of the captives who marched in the triumphal procession, and the great magnificence with which the whole was conducted, excited general admiration. But the most remarkable object in the spectacle was Marcellus, carrying the armour of Viridomarus. He had caused the trunk of a mountain-oak to be hewn into the form of a trophy; and had adorned it with the spoils of the Gaulish king. When the procession began to move, Marcellus ascended his chariot, and passed through the city with the trophy upon his shoulders. The army followed, clad in armour, and singing odes composed for the occasion, and songs of triumph, in honour of Jupiter and of their general. When they came to the temple of Jupiter, Marcellus there set up his trophy, and consecrated it to that god.

So much delighted were the Roman people at this sudden and unexpected termination of the war, that they made an offering to Apollo, at Delphi, of an immense golden cup, in testimony of their gratitude to heaven for deliverance from so powerful and ferocious an enemy.

It was not very long after this that Marcellus had many important contests with Annibal, the Carthaginian general. Annibal had entered Italy; and, near Cannes, a village in Apulia, had defeated the Romans with a loss greater than they had ever before experienced in one battle. Elated by this success, it was expected that he would march immediately to Rome. The Romans were in dreadful consternation. They armed every man who was capable of serving, and gave the chief command of their forces jointly to Marcellus and Fabius Maximus. The latter was a general of great talent, and celebrated for the cautious policy with which all his operations were conducted. The Romans were inclined to consider him too dilatory: hence they were desirous of joining with him a man whom they could trust, and who would act with vigour.

Instead of marching towards Rome, as had been expected, Annibal proceeded to Capua, and, after having taken possession of that city, passed there the winter. Having no enemy near them, to dread, the Carthaginian troops spent the greatest part of their time in indolence and dissipation. One consequence of this was, that they became extremely weakened and disorderly. Marcellus, who was well informed respecting the state of the Carthaginian camp, considered this a first opportunity for the Roman army to act. He, consequently, made a rapid march, suddenly attacked the enemy, and destroyed great numbers of them. Hastening thence, he proceeded to Nola, a fortified town, not far from Naples, and, at that time, garrisoned by the Romans. He entered the town; and, having drawn up his forces, and placed his baggage near the gates, he strictly prohihited any of the inhabitants from going upon the walls. Annibal, who had previously been there, tampering with the inhabitants, to surrender the place to him, again approached. Not observing hostile appearance, he incautiously advanced to the walls. At this moment Marcellus commanded the gate next him to be opened; and, sallying forth, with the best of his cavalry, furiously attacked the enemy in front: soon afterwards, the infantry, with loud shouts, rushed out at another gate; and, whilst Annibal was dividing his forces to encounter these two parties, a third gate was opened, and the rest of the Roman troops issued forth. The Carthaginians, excessively disconcerted by so unexpected an assault, were compelled to return to Capua with considerable loss.

In gratitude for his services, the Romans, in the year of the city 537 (217 av. J.C.), again appointed Marcellus to the office of Consul; but he was presented from accepting it, in consequence of a thunder-storm, which occurred during the time of the election. This was pronounced by the augurs to be an unfavourable omen; and they asserted that the election must be rendered void. Marcellus did not, however, lose the command of the army, for this was continued to him, in quality of proconsul; after which he returned to Nola. During his absence, several of the inhabitants of Nola had declared themselves in favour of the Carthaginians. Annibal, in consequence of this, offered Marcellus battle; but he declined fighting, when he saw that his adversary might possibly obtain an important advantage over him. About four days afterwards, however, when he had ascertained that Annibal, not suspecting the Romans would venture to encounter him, had sent out a considerable part of his army in search of forage, Marcellus suddenly attacked the Carthaginians, and again defeated them.

In the ensuing year Marcellus was once more nominated to the consulship. He now sailed with a powerful force into Sicily, in consequence of the Carthaginians having obtained possession of Syracuse, the chief city of that island. He attacked the place, by storm, and took it; but, a little while afterwards, during his absence in another part of the island, it was retaken. This was so mortifying to him, that, immediately quitting all other concerns, he marched with his whole army, encamped before the city, and invested it both by sea and land.

The management of the army he gave to Appius Claudius, the praetor; and he took the command of the fleet himself. Among other offensive weapons, he had with him a prodigious engine, which was carried upon eight galleys fastened together. With this he approached the walls of the city, relying, for success, on the number of his batteries, and his various instruments of war, as well as on his own talents and experience. But he had not calculated on the difficulties he should have to encounter from the talents of a single inhabitant of Syracuse; a philopher named Archimedes.

The Syracusans were excessively terrified; but Archimedes was fully confident in the means that he could apply for the defence of the place. The city walls, having been built along unequal eminences, were, in most parts, high and dificult of access; but, in others, they were low and liable to attack. These Walls were furnished, by Archimedes, with engines of various kinds, adapted to the nature of the different parts. The attack was commenced by Marcellus from the ships. Eight of his largest vessels were fastened in pairs; and upon them were erected turrets several stories high, having machines of various kinds for demolishing the walls. Archimedes attacked these with his engines; and, on the ships, which lay at a distance, he discharged stones of immense size and weight. In a part of the walls, near which the ships were most crowded, he used an engine composed of a long lever, supported at the middle, and fixed in such manner that one arm of it projected beyond the wall. From the extremity of this hung a strong chain, with an iron grapple, or two among claws, at the end. The weight of the iron caused it to fall with great violence, and drove it into the planks of the galleys. The persons, on the walls, then loading, with lead, the opposite end of the lever, raised it up, and, with it, the bow of the vessel to which the grapple or claws were fastened, at the same time sinking the stern into the water. After this, the grapple suddenly letting go its hold, the stern of the vessel fell with such force into the sea, that the whole was filled with water and sunk. We are told that other vessels were caught hold of by grapples, and drawn towards the shore; where, being whirled about and dashed against the rocks, they were broken to pieces. Plutarch states that, in the ships were seen lifted up high above the see, where they were whirled round until the men were thrown out of them, by the violence of the motion; and that they were then split: against the walls, or sunk, on the engines letting go their hold. With respect to the great machine of Marcellus, Archimedes, whilst it was at a considerable distance from the walls, is said to have discharged upon it a stone of enormous weight, and after that a second and a third; all of which falling with amazing force, shattered it to pieces. We are also told that Archimedes, at last, by means of a combination of mirrors, so concentrated the rays of the sun, as to set fire to the Roman fleet. Some allowance must, no doubt, be made for the exaggerated statements of the ancient writers; but, whatever the operations of Archimedes may have been, the effects of them were such as to compel Marcellus not only to draw off his vessels, but to order his land forces to retreat. Against the latter he is said to have shot missile weapons, and stones of such enormous size, as to have overturned and crushed: whatever came in their way, and to have spread terrible destruction throughout the ranks.

Marcellus, however, did not raise the siege; he only retired, for the purpose of changing his mode of attack. By the recommendation of his officers, he was induced silently to approach the walls in the night, hoping to take the unsuspecting Syracusans by surprise; but, no sooner had he reached them, than his men were assailed by such a shower of darts, and were pelted with such huge pieces of rock, that they were compelled to retire with precipitation. When Marcellus had again collected his troops, he smiled at the puny efforts of his own engineers, and said to them, in a bantering manner: Why do we not cease to contend with this mathematical Briareus, who, sitting on the shore, has baffled all our assaults; and, in striking us with such a multitude of bolts at once, exceeds even the hundred-handed giants mentioned in our fables? The Roman soldiers became so much terrified, that, if they saw a stick put beyond the walls, they imagined that Archimedes was levelling his weapons at them, and instantly fled. The consequence was, that Marcellus was obliged to give up all thoughts of proceeding by assault; and to convert the siege into a blockade. He therefore so surrounded the place, with his troops and ships, that no supplies whatever, either of stores or provisions, could be sent into it. He thus hoped to starve the inhabitants into submission.

After a little while, however, he contrived to take the city by stratagem. When the place was invested, one of the principal inhabitants was taken prisoner. The Syracusans were desirous of ransoming him, by the payment of a sum of money; and many conferences were held for that purpose. Into one of these Marcellus, who was always on the watch to take advantage of any inadvertence of his enemy, noticed a tower in the walls which was but slightly guarded. Into this he imagined that he could privately convey a considerable number of men. On a particular night, the festival of Diana, when the Syracusans had drunk freely, and had abandoned themselves to dissipation, Marcellus not only obtained possession of the tower, but, before daylight, had occupied the walls of all that quarter, with soldiers. This facilitated for him an entrance; and, shortly afterwards, he succeeded in taking possesion of the city.

It is lamentable to read the occurrences which then took place. The authority of Marcellus was insufficient to restrain the licentious barbarity of the Roman soldiers. No sooner were they in possession of Syracuse, than they plundered, burnt, and levelled with the ground, the greatest number of the houses; and, in numerous instances, were guilty of the most wanton acts of barbarity.

Archimedes was slain, and several different accounts have been given of his death. One of these states that, at the time the city was taken, he was in his study, engaged in mathematical researches; and, that his mind was so intently occupied with the subject before him, that he neither heard the noise of the Romans, nor perceived that the Syracusans had lost their city. A soldier is said to have suddenly entered his room, and ordered the philosopher to follow him to Marcellus; and, on his refusing to do this, till he had finished his problem, the man drew his sword and killed him. Another account relates that the soldier went with a determination to destroy him; and that, Archimedes perceiving this, only requested a few minutes respite, that he might not leave his demonstration imperfect; but that the soldier, regarding neither the philosopher nor his demonstration, laid him dead at his feet. A third account informs us that, as Archimedes was himself going to Marcellus, and carrying in his hand a box, containing some curious mathematical instruments, he was met by a party of soldiers, who, imagining that it was killed with gold, slew him, and took it away.

Marcellus extremely regretted the death of this illustrious philosopher. He sent for his relations, and, as the only mode of recompence he could make, for the loss they had sustained, he conferred upon them many signal favours. Indeed, none of the Roman generals had a greater regard for equity than Marcellus. He was kind to all who deserved his regard; and so many benefits did he confer both upon cities and individuals, that if, in some instances, he has been accused of severity, the blame ought, perhaps, to be attributed more to the sufferers than to him.

In the siege of Syracuse he was occupied nearly three years; and after the place was taken, and he had made arrangements for the security of Sicily, he was called to Rome, for the purpose of conducting a war in his own country. He carried away with him a great number of valuable statues and paintings, with which he intended to embellish his triumph. Hitherto the Roman capital had not possessed any curiosities of this kind: it was wholly a stranger to the charms of taste and elegance; for all its spoils had; till this period, been taken from barbarous nations.

The historian, Livy, thus moralizes respecting the articles that were brought from Sicily. These (he says) were, no doubt, the spoils of enemies, and were acquired by the right of war, yet they gave rise to a taste for admiring the works of Grecian artists, and to the consequent unbounded rapacity with which all places, both sacred and profane, were plundered; and which was, at last, exercised even against the deities of Rome.

Marcellus was applauded by many of the Roman people, for introducing, into their city, curiosities in the Grecian taste; but others blamed him for bringing them: these asserted that such things would tend to destroy a people whose most important pursuits were agriculture and war. The enmity thus excited, absurd as it may appear, caused a strong opposition to be made to his entering Rome in triumph; and he was consequently honoured with only what was called the lesser triumph. He, however, passed Mount Alba, about twelve miles from the city, in a very splendid manner; and, when he entered Rome, all the spoils which he had taken were borne in procession before him. Among other articles were a model, representing the captured city of Syracuse; various engines used in war : the valuable ornaments collected by the kings of Sicily, at a vast expence, and during a long continuance of peace; abundance of wrought silver, and brass furniture of various kinds; precious garments and many fine statues. Eight elephants, animals that had been employed in battle by the Carthaginians, were also led in his train.

Notwithstanding the enmity of his opponents and rivals, the conduct of Marcellus, as a commander, was so correctly estimated by the Roman people, that, shortly afterwards, he was elected consul for the fourth time. His enemies, however, were instigated by some of the inhabitants of Syracuse, to accuse him, before the Roman senate, of having treated them with cruelty, and contrary to the acknowledged laws of warfare. Marcellus was absent when the deputation from Syracuse arrived; but, he was no sooner informed of the accusation, than he hastened to Rome. On the day of his trial, he first took the chair of state, and transacted some public business as consul: that ended, he left his seat, and went to the place appointed as the station of persons accused of crime. The Syracusans were astonished at the dignity of his manner. He who had been irresistible in arms, was still more terrible in his robes. He adduced convincing proofs that, notwithstanding many instances of criminal behaviour in that people, they had suffered nothing but what it was impossible for him to have prevented. The senate consequently decided in his favour.

The conduct of Marcellus, after this, was truly dignified. No sooner was he acquitted, than the persons who had preferred the complaint against him fell at his feet, and besought him with tears, to pardon the Syracusans for what they had done. Marcellus not only pardoned, but promised to them his protection; and the senate, at his suggestion, confirmed to them their liberty, their laws, and their remaining possessions. This people were not ungrateful for the favours they thus received. They conferred on Marcellus many distinguished honours. They even made a law, that whenever he, or any of his descendants should enter Sicily, the Syracasans should wear garlands, and offer sacrifices for him to the ods.

After this decision of the senate had taken place, Marcellus was directed to march against Annibal, who was still in Italy. The system which had been adopted by the Roman generals was to act only on the defensive, in a hope that the resources of the Carthaginian would be exhausted, and he would be compelled to retire from the country. This plan, however, had not succeeded, and Marcellus resolved to open the campaign by offensive operations. He first recovered the possession of several towns which had revolted from the Romans; and, in these, he found considerable magazines of corn, and took many prisoners. He then entered Lucania, near the southern extremity of Italy, and found Annibal encamped on some heights, almost inaccessible, near the city of Numistro. Marcellus pitched his tents on the plain, and, the next day, drew up his forces in order of battle. This was a challenge which Annibal did not decline. He descended from the hills, and a ferocious, but indecisive combat took place. Early on the ensuing morning, Marcellus, having posted his men among the bodies of the slain, again challenged his foe; but Annibal, fearful of again encountering so skilful an opponent, retired to another part of the country. As soon as Marcellus had collected the spoils that had been left by the enemy, and had buried his dead, he marched in pursuit of him. Annibal attempted to deceive the Roman general by many stratagems, but Marcellus escaped them all, and had the advantage in every skirmish.

It was now agreed betwixt Marcellus and his colleague Fabius Maximus, that the latter should besiege Tarentum in Calabria, while the former watched the motions of Annibal. Marcellus overtook him near Canusium, where he experienced a partial defeat. He was so much irritated and mortified by his want of success, that, after he had retreated to his camp, he summoned the troops, and angrily told them that he saw, indeed, the arms and the bodies of Romans before him, but not one Roman.

This severe reproof operated so strongly upon their minds, that, on the ensuing morning, he again ventured to hang out a scarlet robe, the usual signal for battle. The Carthaginians were astonished at his perseverance. Annibal, on observing the signal, exclaimed: Ye gods, what can be done with a man who is not affected either with good or with bad fortune! Marcellus is the only general I have seen, who will neither give time to rest when he is victorious, nor take any when he is beaten. We must even resolve to fight him for ever: since, whether he is prosperous or adverse, a principal of confidence or of shame, equally impels him to further exertions of courage.

In the preparation for this battle, those companies of the Roman soldiers who had dishonoured themselves on the previous day, obtained permission to be placed in the foremost rank; and, as soon as all the arrangements were complete, the Romans marched to the attack. The battle was commenced by Annibal ordering several elephants, which he had with him, to be brought into the front of his army, and to be goaded on against the Romans. One of the tribunes snatched an ensign-staff, and, with the point of it, wounded the foremost elephant. The beast, on receiving the wound, turned back, and ran upon the second, the second on the next, and so on till they were all thrown into confusion. Marcellus, taking advantage of this, ordered his cavalry to make a furious charge. The Carthaginians were routed with the loss of about eight thousand men, and Annibal, to save the remainder of his army from destruction, was compelled to retreat. But so great was the loss sustained by the Romans, that Marcellus, unable to pursue him, retired into Campania.

Being now freed from fear of an attack, Annibal ravaged all the country around him, and committed great devastation. This occasioned the enemies of Marcellus publicly to accuse him of having merely skirmished with the Carthaginians, and then of having indolently gone to spend his time, at the hot baths of Campania. Marcellus hastened to home, to justify his conduct; which he did so satisfactorily, that he was not only acquitted of the charge, but was again chosen consul.

Not long after this, he obtained permission to erect temples to two heathen deities, Honour and Virtue; and be caused them to be so placed, as to effect a very elegant architectural moral; no one could enter the temple of Honour, unless he first passed through that of Virtue.

When every thing had been arranged which had required his presence in Rome, he became impatient again to join the army: but he was not, for some time, permitted to do so. It was pretended that many unfavourable omens had been observed: for instance, that some rats had gnawed the gold, in the temple of Jupiter; that an ox had been heard to speak; and that a child had been born in the city, with an ox's head. Sacrifices, for expiation of these prodigies, were offered; but it was not until some time had elapsed, that they were declared to be such as the soothsayers approved.

When permitted to depart, he proceeded towards Venusia, in Apulia; and, having there fixed his camp, he in vain tried every possible method to provoke his adversary to battle. Annibal not only himself avoided a disadvantageous conflict, but studied every means of gaining advantage over Marcellus; and was, at length, but too successful. He concealed a great number of armed men, on an eminence covered with thickets, which he thought the Romans might consider an advantageous position for their army. Marcellus did not discover the stratagem, and set out, in company with his son, his colleague Crispinus, and two hundred and twenty horse soldiers, to examine the place. On his approach, the men in ambush rushed out. Marcellus was stabbed through the body and fell down dead; and Crispinus, and the son of Marcellus, were carried wounded from the field. This afflicting event took place in the year of the city 545, and when Marcellus was about sixty years of age.

As soon as Annibal was informed that Marcellus had been slain, he hastened to the place, and, standing over the body, silently contemplated it for some time. He appeared to be astonished at the strange death of so great a man; but he did not utter one insulting word respecting him, nor did he exhibit the slightest indication of joy. He then caused the body to be magnificently attired, and, according to the practice of the ancients, to be burnt. Afterwards, he had the ashes collected and put into a silver urn; and, having placed upon this, a crown of gold, he sent it to the son of Marcellus. But a party of Numidian soldiers, meeting the persons who carried the urn, attempted to take it from them; and in the struggle, the ashes were scattered upon the ground and lost.

Marcellus was singularly eminent for the acuteness of his judgment and the promptness of his actions. Hence it was that whilst Fabius Maximus was styled the shield, he was denominated the sword of Rome; and hence Annibal was accustomed to assert, that whilst he stood in fear of Fabius as his schoolmaster, he feared Marcellus as his opponent.

Authorities-Livy, and Plutarch.